Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States

Emmanuel Opada; David Gonzales; Delilah Perez; Shannon Giestman; Nsikan Affiah

doi:doi:10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States

Emmanuel Opada^*, David Gonzales, Delilah Perez, Shannon Giestman, Nsikan Affiah

Published in World Journal of Public Health (Volume 8, Issue 4)

Received: 10 November 2023 Accepted: 30 November 2023 Published: 18 December 2023

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Abstract

As the spread of COVID-19 infection seems to be unending, several investigations have examined the occurrence of COVID-19 reinfection particularly among healthcare professionals potentially due to the inherent exposure risks in their line of work. Furthermore, considering the increase in the emergence of different variants, it is also quite revealing that significant number of the population is still unvaccinated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection among individuals residing in a County as well as to determine the factors that contribute to reinfection. This study focuses on the County of Victoria, located in the Southeastern Texas, on the Coastal Plain about midway between the southern and eastern extremities of the Texas Gulf Coast. Using a cross sectional study design and where data from 20,499 COVID-19 cases reported to the health department between March 2020 and December 2022 together with their corresponding vaccination status on ImmTrac2 during the reporting period and the corresponding cases of reinfection were analyzed. Variables included in the dataset were age, sex, date of onset of illness, date of sample collection, date diagnosis was made, date of death (if applicable), vaccination status, date of previous infection, previous ID number & name of health facility. Percentages, frequencies, Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression was employed with a significance level of p < 0.05 predicting reinfection on a number of indicators using SPSS version 28 statistical software. The findings revealed that the odds for reinfection among vaccinated individuals was 0.289 (95% confidence interval 0.244-0.342). Also, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among Hispanics was 1.507 (95% confidence interval 1.275-1.782) compared to non-Hispanics. Lastly, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among males was 0.873 (95% confidence interval 0.747-1.021). Additionally, out of the 20,499 reported cases of COVID-19, there were 932 reinfections, accounting for 4.5% of the total cases. One of the main findings of the study was that vaccination against COVID-19 offered about 70% protection against reinfection compared to the non-vaccinated. In light of the emergence of new strains, it is crucial for the government and public health authorities to reassess policies regarding the enforcement of COVID-19 vaccines and prioritize improving vaccination coverage. These measures are necessary to safeguard against reinfection and mitigate the impact of COVID-19.

Published in	World Journal of Public Health (Volume 8, Issue 4)
DOI	10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
Page(s)	310-314
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Prevalence, COVID-19, Reinfection Rate, Vaccination, Determinants

References

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[2]	Cucinotta D, Vanelli M. (2020) WHO Declares COVID-19 a Pandemic. Acta Biomed. 2020 Mar 19; 91(1): 157-160. doi: 10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397. PMID: 32191675; PMCID: PMC7569573.
[3]	Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O'Neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, Iosifidis C, Agha R. (2020) World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int J Surg. 2020 Apr; 76: 71-76. doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034. Epub 2020 Feb 26. Erratum in: Int J Surg. 2020 May; 77: 217. PMID: 32112977; PMCID: PMC7105032.
[4]	Habas K, Nganwuchu C, Shahzad F, Gopalan R, Haque M, Rahman S, Majumder AA, Nasim T. (2020) Resolution of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020 Dec; 18(12): 1201-1211. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2020.1797487. Epub 2020 Aug 4. PMID: 32749914.
[5]	Bhattacharya S, Basu P, Poddar S (2020). Changing epidemiology of SARS-CoV in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. J Prev Med Hyg. 2020 Jul 4; 61(2): E130-E136. doi: 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2020.61.2.1541. PMID: 32802995; PMCID: PMC7419125.
[6]	Sharma R, Sardar S, Mohammad Arshad A, Ata F, Zara S, Munir W (2020) A Patient with Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection Who Presented 86 Days Later with COVID-19 Pneumonia Possibly Due to Reinfection with SARS-CoV-2. Am J Case Rep. 2020 Dec 1; 21: e927154. doi: 10.12659/AJCR.927154. PMID: 33257644; PMCID: PMC7718490.
[7]	Shaheen NA, Sambas R, Alenezi M, Alharbi NK, Aldibasi O, Bosaeed M. (2022). COVID-19 reinfection: A multicenter retrospective study in Saudi Arabia. Ann Thorac Med. 2022 Apr-Jun; 17(2): 81-86. doi: 10.4103/atm.atm_74_22. Epub 2022 Apr 19. PMID: 35651891; PMCID: PMC9150659.
[8]	Aleem A, Akbar Samad AB, Slenker AK. (2022). Emerging Variants of SARS-CoV-2 And Novel Therapeutics Against Coronavirus (COVID-19). Oct 10. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan–. PMID: 34033342.
[9]	Akinbami LJ, Biggerstaff BJ, Chan PA, McGibbon E, Pathela P, Petersen LR. (2022). Reinfection With Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Among Previously Infected Healthcare Personnel and First Responders. Clin Infect Dis. Aug 24; 75 (1): e201-e207. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab952. PMID: 34791108; PMCID: PMC8767877.
[10]	Wei, Jia-Te, Zhi-Dong Liu, Zheng-Wei Fan, Lin Zhao, Wu-Chun Cao (2020). "Epidemiology of and Risk Factors for COVID-19 Infection among. Health Care Workers: A Multi-Centre Comparative Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19: 7149. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197149
[11]	Nitin P, Nandhakumar R, Vidhya B, Rajesh S, Sakunthala A. (2021) COVID-19: Invasion, pathogenesis, and possible cure - A review. J Virol Methods. 2022 Feb; 300: 114434. doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114434. Epub 2021 Dec 14. PMID: 34919978; PMCID: PMC8669942.
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[14]	U.S. Census Bureau, (2023) Resident Population in Victoria County, TX [TXVICT0POP], retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/TXVICT0POP, February 18, 2023.
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APA Style

Opada, E., Gonzales, D., Perez, D., Giestman, S., Affiah, N. (2023). Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World Journal of Public Health, 8(4), 310-314. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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ACS Style

Opada, E.; Gonzales, D.; Perez, D.; Giestman, S.; Affiah, N. Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World J. Public Health 2023, 8(4), 310-314. doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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AMA Style

Opada E, Gonzales D, Perez D, Giestman S, Affiah N. Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World J Public Health. 2023;8(4):310-314. doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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@article{10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19,
  author = {Emmanuel Opada and David Gonzales and Delilah Perez and Shannon Giestman and Nsikan Affiah},
  title = {Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States},
  journal = {World Journal of Public Health},
  volume = {8},
  number = {4},
  pages = {310-314},
  doi = {10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.wjph.20230804.19},
  abstract = {As the spread of COVID-19 infection seems to be unending, several investigations have examined the occurrence of COVID-19 reinfection particularly among healthcare professionals potentially due to the inherent exposure risks in their line of work. Furthermore, considering the increase in the emergence of different variants, it is also quite revealing that significant number of the population is still unvaccinated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection among individuals residing in a County as well as to determine the factors that contribute to reinfection. This study focuses on the County of Victoria, located in the Southeastern Texas, on the Coastal Plain about midway between the southern and eastern extremities of the Texas Gulf Coast. Using a cross sectional study design and where data from 20,499 COVID-19 cases reported to the health department between March 2020 and December 2022 together with their corresponding vaccination status on ImmTrac2 during the reporting period and the corresponding cases of reinfection were analyzed. Variables included in the dataset were age, sex, date of onset of illness, date of sample collection, date diagnosis was made, date of death (if applicable), vaccination status, date of previous infection, previous ID number & name of health facility. Percentages, frequencies, Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression was employed with a significance level of p < 0.05 predicting reinfection on a number of indicators using SPSS version 28 statistical software. The findings revealed that the odds for reinfection among vaccinated individuals was 0.289 (95% confidence interval 0.244-0.342). Also, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among Hispanics was 1.507 (95% confidence interval 1.275-1.782) compared to non-Hispanics. Lastly, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among males was 0.873 (95% confidence interval 0.747-1.021). Additionally, out of the 20,499 reported cases of COVID-19, there were 932 reinfections, accounting for 4.5% of the total cases. One of the main findings of the study was that vaccination against COVID-19 offered about 70% protection against reinfection compared to the non-vaccinated. In light of the emergence of new strains, it is crucial for the government and public health authorities to reassess policies regarding the enforcement of COVID-19 vaccines and prioritize improving vaccination coverage. These measures are necessary to safeguard against reinfection and mitigate the impact of COVID-19.
},
 year = {2023}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States
AU  - Emmanuel Opada
AU  - David Gonzales
AU  - Delilah Perez
AU  - Shannon Giestman
AU  - Nsikan Affiah
Y1  - 2023/12/18
PY  - 2023
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
DO  - 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
T2  - World Journal of Public Health
JF  - World Journal of Public Health
JO  - World Journal of Public Health
SP  - 310
EP  - 314
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2637-6059
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
AB  - As the spread of COVID-19 infection seems to be unending, several investigations have examined the occurrence of COVID-19 reinfection particularly among healthcare professionals potentially due to the inherent exposure risks in their line of work. Furthermore, considering the increase in the emergence of different variants, it is also quite revealing that significant number of the population is still unvaccinated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection among individuals residing in a County as well as to determine the factors that contribute to reinfection. This study focuses on the County of Victoria, located in the Southeastern Texas, on the Coastal Plain about midway between the southern and eastern extremities of the Texas Gulf Coast. Using a cross sectional study design and where data from 20,499 COVID-19 cases reported to the health department between March 2020 and December 2022 together with their corresponding vaccination status on ImmTrac2 during the reporting period and the corresponding cases of reinfection were analyzed. Variables included in the dataset were age, sex, date of onset of illness, date of sample collection, date diagnosis was made, date of death (if applicable), vaccination status, date of previous infection, previous ID number & name of health facility. Percentages, frequencies, Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression was employed with a significance level of p < 0.05 predicting reinfection on a number of indicators using SPSS version 28 statistical software. The findings revealed that the odds for reinfection among vaccinated individuals was 0.289 (95% confidence interval 0.244-0.342). Also, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among Hispanics was 1.507 (95% confidence interval 1.275-1.782) compared to non-Hispanics. Lastly, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among males was 0.873 (95% confidence interval 0.747-1.021). Additionally, out of the 20,499 reported cases of COVID-19, there were 932 reinfections, accounting for 4.5% of the total cases. One of the main findings of the study was that vaccination against COVID-19 offered about 70% protection against reinfection compared to the non-vaccinated. In light of the emergence of new strains, it is crucial for the government and public health authorities to reassess policies regarding the enforcement of COVID-19 vaccines and prioritize improving vaccination coverage. These measures are necessary to safeguard against reinfection and mitigate the impact of COVID-19.

VL  - 8
IS  - 4
ER  -

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Author Information

Emmanuel Opada

Victoria County Public Health Department, Victoria, USA

Contact Email
David Gonzales

Victoria County Public Health Department, Victoria, USA
Delilah Perez

Victoria County Public Health Department, Victoria, USA
Shannon Giestman

Victoria County Public Health Department, Victoria, USA
Nsikan Affiah

Creative Associate International, Abuja, Nigeria

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APA Style

Opada, E., Gonzales, D., Perez, D., Giestman, S., Affiah, N. (2023). Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World Journal of Public Health, 8(4), 310-314. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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ACS Style

Opada, E.; Gonzales, D.; Perez, D.; Giestman, S.; Affiah, N. Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World J. Public Health 2023, 8(4), 310-314. doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

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AMA Style

Opada E, Gonzales D, Perez D, Giestman S, Affiah N. Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States. World J Public Health. 2023;8(4):310-314. doi: 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19,
  author = {Emmanuel Opada and David Gonzales and Delilah Perez and Shannon Giestman and Nsikan Affiah},
  title = {Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States},
  journal = {World Journal of Public Health},
  volume = {8},
  number = {4},
  pages = {310-314},
  doi = {10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.wjph.20230804.19},
  abstract = {As the spread of COVID-19 infection seems to be unending, several investigations have examined the occurrence of COVID-19 reinfection particularly among healthcare professionals potentially due to the inherent exposure risks in their line of work. Furthermore, considering the increase in the emergence of different variants, it is also quite revealing that significant number of the population is still unvaccinated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection among individuals residing in a County as well as to determine the factors that contribute to reinfection. This study focuses on the County of Victoria, located in the Southeastern Texas, on the Coastal Plain about midway between the southern and eastern extremities of the Texas Gulf Coast. Using a cross sectional study design and where data from 20,499 COVID-19 cases reported to the health department between March 2020 and December 2022 together with their corresponding vaccination status on ImmTrac2 during the reporting period and the corresponding cases of reinfection were analyzed. Variables included in the dataset were age, sex, date of onset of illness, date of sample collection, date diagnosis was made, date of death (if applicable), vaccination status, date of previous infection, previous ID number & name of health facility. Percentages, frequencies, Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression was employed with a significance level of p < 0.05 predicting reinfection on a number of indicators using SPSS version 28 statistical software. The findings revealed that the odds for reinfection among vaccinated individuals was 0.289 (95% confidence interval 0.244-0.342). Also, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among Hispanics was 1.507 (95% confidence interval 1.275-1.782) compared to non-Hispanics. Lastly, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among males was 0.873 (95% confidence interval 0.747-1.021). Additionally, out of the 20,499 reported cases of COVID-19, there were 932 reinfections, accounting for 4.5% of the total cases. One of the main findings of the study was that vaccination against COVID-19 offered about 70% protection against reinfection compared to the non-vaccinated. In light of the emergence of new strains, it is crucial for the government and public health authorities to reassess policies regarding the enforcement of COVID-19 vaccines and prioritize improving vaccination coverage. These measures are necessary to safeguard against reinfection and mitigate the impact of COVID-19.
},
 year = {2023}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Prevalence and Determinants of COVID-19 Reinfection: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Residents in a County in the United States
AU  - Emmanuel Opada
AU  - David Gonzales
AU  - Delilah Perez
AU  - Shannon Giestman
AU  - Nsikan Affiah
Y1  - 2023/12/18
PY  - 2023
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
DO  - 10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
T2  - World Journal of Public Health
JF  - World Journal of Public Health
JO  - World Journal of Public Health
SP  - 310
EP  - 314
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2637-6059
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.wjph.20230804.19
AB  - As the spread of COVID-19 infection seems to be unending, several investigations have examined the occurrence of COVID-19 reinfection particularly among healthcare professionals potentially due to the inherent exposure risks in their line of work. Furthermore, considering the increase in the emergence of different variants, it is also quite revealing that significant number of the population is still unvaccinated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to ascertain the prevalence of COVID-19 reinfection among individuals residing in a County as well as to determine the factors that contribute to reinfection. This study focuses on the County of Victoria, located in the Southeastern Texas, on the Coastal Plain about midway between the southern and eastern extremities of the Texas Gulf Coast. Using a cross sectional study design and where data from 20,499 COVID-19 cases reported to the health department between March 2020 and December 2022 together with their corresponding vaccination status on ImmTrac2 during the reporting period and the corresponding cases of reinfection were analyzed. Variables included in the dataset were age, sex, date of onset of illness, date of sample collection, date diagnosis was made, date of death (if applicable), vaccination status, date of previous infection, previous ID number & name of health facility. Percentages, frequencies, Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression was employed with a significance level of p < 0.05 predicting reinfection on a number of indicators using SPSS version 28 statistical software. The findings revealed that the odds for reinfection among vaccinated individuals was 0.289 (95% confidence interval 0.244-0.342). Also, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among Hispanics was 1.507 (95% confidence interval 1.275-1.782) compared to non-Hispanics. Lastly, the odds ratio (OR) for reinfection among males was 0.873 (95% confidence interval 0.747-1.021). Additionally, out of the 20,499 reported cases of COVID-19, there were 932 reinfections, accounting for 4.5% of the total cases. One of the main findings of the study was that vaccination against COVID-19 offered about 70% protection against reinfection compared to the non-vaccinated. In light of the emergence of new strains, it is crucial for the government and public health authorities to reassess policies regarding the enforcement of COVID-19 vaccines and prioritize improving vaccination coverage. These measures are necessary to safeguard against reinfection and mitigate the impact of COVID-19.

VL  - 8
IS  - 4
ER  -

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